1、IES TM-16-17Solid State LightingSources and SystemsIES TM-16-17Solid State LightingSources and SystemsPublication of this TechnicalMemorandum has been approvedby IES. Suggestions for revisionsshould be directed to IES.Copyright 2017 by the Illuminating Engineering Society.Approved by the IES Board o
2、f Directors, May 1, 2017, as a Transaction of the Illuminating EngineeringSociety.All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in any electronic retrievalsystem or otherwise, without prior written permission of the IES.Published by the Illuminating Engineering Soci
3、ety, 120 Wall Street, New York, New York 10005.IES Standards and Guides are developed through committee consensus and produced by the IES Officein New York. Careful attention is given to style and accuracy. If any errors are noted in this document,please forward them to Brian Liebel, Director of Sta
4、ndards and Research, at the above address forverification and correction. The IES welcomes and urges feedback and comments.Printed in the United States of America.ISBN # 978-0-87995-343-0DISCLAIMERIES publications are developed through the consensus standards development process approved by the Amer
5、ican National Standards Institute. This process brings together volunteers representing varied viewpoints and interests to achieve consensus on lighting recommendations. While the IES administers the process and establishes policies and procedures to promote fairness in the development of consensus,
6、 it makes no guaranty or warranty as to the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein.The IES disclaims liability for any injury to persons or property or other damages of any nature whatsoever, whether special, indirect, consequential or compensatory, directly or indirectly resul
7、ting from the publication, use of, or reliance on this documentIn issuing and making this document available, the IES is not undertaking to render professional or other services for or on behalf of any person or entity. Nor is the IES undertaking to perform any duty owed by any person or entity to s
8、omeone else. Anyone using this document should rely on his or her own independent judgment or, as appropriate, seek the advice of a competent professional in determining the exercise of reasonable care in any given circumstances.The IES has no power, nor does it undertake, to police or enforce compl
9、iance with the contents of this document. Nor does the IES list, certify, test or inspect products, designs, or installations for compliance with this document. Any certification or statement of compliance with the requirements of this document shall not be attributable to the IES and is solely the
10、responsibility of the certifier or maker of the statement.TM-16 Task Group of the IES Light Sources CommitteeYoelit Hiebert, Technical CoordinatorIES Light Sources CommitteeEric Perkins, ChairJianzhong Jiao, Vice ChairR. JanikJ. JiaoM. MinarczykE. PerkinsE. RadkovR. ValdesP. Appaiah*J. BardsleyE. Br
11、etschneiderY. ChenJ. ConnellJ. Creveling*A. Gelder*E. GraffK. HaraguchiY. HiebertR. JanikA. Jones*D. KorowK. Liepmann*E. EstradaM. MinarczykS. Rao*S. Roy*W. RyanR. ValdesB. Willcock*I-S. Yeo* AdvisoryPlease refer to the IES Bookstore after you purchase this IES Standard, for possible Errata, Addenda
12、, and Clarifications, www.ies.org/bookstoreContentsINTRODUCTION 11.0 SCOPE 12.0 NORMATIVE REFERENCE.13.0 DEFINITIONS14.0 HISTORY OF LEDS.15.0 TECHNOLOGY OF LEDS 35.1 How LEDs (OLEDs) Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
13、.1.1 The Light Emitting Diode 35.1.2 Organic LEDs (OLEDs) . 45.2 Types of LEDs 55.3 LED Characteristics . 55.3.1 Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55.3.2 Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55.3.3 Energy Output 55.3.4 Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65.3.5 Correlated Color Tempe
15、rature 65.3.6 Color Rendering 75.3.7 Creating White Light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75.3.8 Spectral Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16、. . . . . 85.3.9 Luminous Flux 95.3.10 Spatial Distribution 95.3.11 Electrical Characteristics . 95.3.12 Thermal Characteristics 95.3.13 Phosphor and Lens Placement . 105.3.14 Luminous Efficacy . 105.3.15 Luminous Flux Maintenance . 115.3.16 Chromaticity Variance 115.3.17 Failure Rate 115.4 OLED Cha
17、racteristics . 125.4.1 Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125.4.2 Spectral Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18、125.4.3 Creating White Light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125.4.4 Efficacy . 125.4.5 Luminous Flux Maintenance 125.4.6 Chromaticity Variance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19、. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126.0 COMPONENTS OF LED SYSTEMS AND HOW THEY WORK . 136.1 Electrical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136.2 Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20、. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136.2.1 Color and Luminous Flux Binning 136.2.2 Secondary Optics . 136.3 Thermal Management and Heat Sinks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136.4 LED Lighting Power S
21、ources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147.0 LED LIGHTING SYSTEM PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS 147.1 Impacts of Operating Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157.1.1
22、Vibration 157.1.2 Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157.1.3 Temperature . 157.1.4 Particulate and Pollution Contamination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23、. . 157.2 Light Output . 157.3 System Efficacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157.4 Utilization Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24、 . . . . . . . . . 177.5 Glare 178.0 LIGHT SOURCE PERFORMANCE COMPARISON 179.0 SAFETY 1810.0 ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS 1910.1 Life Cycle Cost. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1910.2 Hazardous Ma
25、terials 1910.3 Disposal 1910.4 Light Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1910.5 Circadian Rhythm 1910.6 Flicker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26、. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1911.0 APPLICATIONS 2011.1. Signage 2011.1.1 Traffic Signal and Roadway Signage . 2011.1.2 Retail and Commercial Signage . 2011.1.3 Safety and Emergency Signage . 2011.2 Automotice Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2011.3 Health and Medical Applications 2011.4 Large-Scale Displays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2011.5 Small-Scale Displays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28、. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2011.6 General Lighting Applications 2111.7 Architectural Lighting . 2111.8 Stage and Studio Lighting . 2111.9 Horticultural and Agricultural Lighting . 2111.10 Other Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2111.11 OLED Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2111.12 Quantum Dot Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2111.13 Data Communication-Related Applications 22ANNEX A GENERAL REFERENCES . 22ANNEX B GLOSSARY 221IES TM-16-17INTRODUCTIONThis document is intended to serve as a technical resource to members of the lighting community by providing a high-le
31、vel overview of the history and technology of light-emitting diode (LED) light sources and LED lighting systems. Although this document is not intended to be a design guide, LED source and lighting system applications will be addressed as well.As any document cannot serve as the final word on the ra
32、pidly evolving field of LED lighting, readers are encouraged to use this Technical Memorandum as a starting point toward a greater understanding of LED light sources and systems. To that end, informative references are provided in Annex A of this document.1.0 SCOPEThis document provides an update to
33、 the previous version, IES TM-16-05, to include current information pertaining to the history, technology and applications of LED sources and systems.2.0 NORMATIVE REFERENCEANSI/IES RP-16-17, Nomenclature and Definitions for Illuminating Engineering https:/www.ies.org/standards.ansi-ies-rp-16/3.0 DE
34、FINITIONSAnnex B contains a glossary of commonly used terms.4.0 HISTORY OF LEDSAlthough the scientific community had been aware from the beginning of the twentieth century that diodes were capable of emitting radiation, the first practical light-emitting diode (LED) to operate in the visible spectru
35、m was invented in 1962 by Nick Holonyak of General Electric. Further inventions throughout the later 1960s and the 1970s facilitated the development of LEDs that produced additional colors and enabled integration into consumer products. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the advances made in LED technology
36、from 1907 to 2000. Figure 1. Timeline of the invention of the light emitting diode. (Image courtesy of Ray Janik)2IES TM-16-17LEDs were initially used as indicators in electronics and measurement devices; by the 1970s, they were used in seven-segment displays in digital watches and other display app
37、lications. An example of an early LED indicator is shown in Figure 3. Later, as light output and color consistency capabilities improved, LEDs were incorporated into a variety of other direct display applications such as traffic lights and automotive indicator lighting. The invention of a high-brigh
38、tness blue LED by Shuji Nakamura, Isamu Akasaki, and Hiroshi Amano in the early 1990s led to the development of white LED light sources. Since the early 2000s, the development of LEDs as a source of white light has evolved rapidly, with drastic improvements in both light output (lumens) and efficacy
39、 (lumens/watt). Figure 4 provides actual and projected increases in the efficacy of representative LED white light sources from 2005 to 2025. As seen in Figure 4, improvement of over 300 percent is anticipated in this timeframe. It is this increase in lumen output and efficacy that has driven the ad
40、option of LEDs into general lighting applications. The development of white LED sources facilitated incorporation into general lighting products for both interior and exterior environments beginning in the early 2000s. Currently, LED-based lighting products are available for nearly every general lig
41、hting application, and while LEDs continue to be used as indicators, numerous other applications beyond general lighting will be discussed in Section 11.Figure 2. Timeline of light emitting diode development. (Image courtesy of Ray Janik)Figure 3. Red LED indicator light. (iStockphoto)Figure 4. LED
42、package efficacy projections. (U.S. DOE, Solid State Lighting R elements shaded blue are p-type materials; elements shaded green are n-type materials.Figure 6. An example of a single LED package with conventional architecture. (Source: infoarteso.in/ 2015 copyright Arteso Pvt. Ltd. All rights reserv
43、ed.)Figure 7. An example of a single LED package with “flip chip” architecture. (Illuminating Engineering Society)4IES TM-16-17layer made of an organic compound. Figure 12 shows a diagram of OLED components. OLEDs can be manufactured as either rigid or flexible film sheets, making them ideal for app
44、lications requiring large areas of evenly distributed light.OLEDs are diffuse light sources composed of layers of organic semiconductor materials situated between two electrodes deposited on a substrate. Depending upon the physical configuration, LED lighting products are referred to as lamps, light
45、 engines, or luminaires. Figures 9, 10, 11 show typical examples of each. Although these products look very different, they all include the basic system elements described above. 5.1.2 Organic LEDs (OLEDs). OLEDs emit light when current is applied to an electroluminescent Figure 8. Elements of an LE
46、D system. (Left image iStockphoto; right image Courtesy of Cree, Inc.) Figure 9. Example of LED lamps. (iStockphoto)Figure 10. Example of LED light engine. (iStockphoto)Figure 11a and 11b. Examples of LED indoor (a) and outdoor (b) luminaires. (Image (a) courtesy of General Electric Company. Image (
47、b) courtesy of Kim LightingFigure 12. Typical OLED construction. (Illuminating Engineering Society)(a)(b)1 2 3 4 Schematic of a bilayer OLED: 1. Cathode, 2. Emissive Layer, 3. Conductive Layer, 4. Anode 5IES TM-16-175.3 LED Characteristics5.3.1 Materials. Light of different colors and efficacies is
48、created through the use of phosphides and nitrides of aluminum, indium, and gallium in LED die fabrication. The two semiconductor material groups most commonly used are AlInGaP (aluminum indium gallium phosphide) compounds, used to create red, orange and amber light, and InGaN (indium gallium nitrid
49、e) compounds, creating blue, cyan, and green light. In addition, these same compounds can produce radiation outside the realm of human vision in the infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.5.3.2 Size. The size of LED dies ranges from tenths of millimeters, used in small indicator devices, to greater than a square millimeter, used in the high-power packages available today. By using multiple dies in an LED package, the appropriate amount of light can be generated for the lighting system requirement. Figure 15 provides a size reference
