1、AIAA G-065-1999 Guide to Global Aerosol Models Sponsor American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Abstract This Guide defines a set of existing reference global aerosol models. It includes tables, plots, and other information describing the optical and mechanical properties of atmospheric ae
2、rosols, both natural and man-made. Intended for use by the aerospace and meteorological communities, the emphasis is on the physical and chemical characteristics, size distributions, sources, locations, and sinks. Urban, rural, maritime, desert, and polar locations; combustion and volcanic sources;
3、and geographic variations are all treated. AIAA G-065-1999 Guide to global aerosol modeldsponsor, American Institute of P. cm. Aeronautics and Astronautics. “AIAA G-065-1999“ Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 1-56347-348-8 (softcover), 1-56347-369-0 (electronic) 1. I. American Institute of A
4、eronautics and Astronautics. QC882.42.G85 1999 551 51 lac21 99-36696 CIP Published by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 22091 Copyright O 1999 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics All rights reserved No part of this publication may
5、 be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher Printed in the United States of America II AIAA G-065-1999 Contents Page vi List of Tables . Foreword . VI1 1 1 Introduction . . 1.1 Scope 1 1 1.2 Aerosol Background . . 1.3
6、Sources for Raw Data 1 1.4 History . . 1 .5 Structure of the Guide 3 2. Global Aerosol Characteristics . 2.1 Sources, Production Rates, and ution 4 2.2 Aerosol Size Distribution . 2.2.1 Characterization of Atmospheric 5 2.2.2 Aerosol Size Distribution Functions. . 2.3 Aerosol Types 9 2.4 Aerosol Var
7、iat . 2.5 Aerosol Optical Properties 15 2.5.1 Optical Properties of a Single Particle . 2.5.2 Optical Prope 17 2.5.3 Aerosol Refractive Indices . 2.6 Aerosol Mechanical Characteristics 22 Global Aerosol Models . 23 3 3.1 Boundary Layer 24 24 3.1.1 General Models . . 3.1.2 Urban Boundary Layer . . .2
8、5 3.1.3 Rural Boundary Layer . 25 3.1 .4 Maritime Boundary Layer . . .25 3.1.5 Desert Boundary Layer . 28 3.1 .6 Polar Boundary Layer 29 3.1.7 Combustion Products and Their T . 29 3.1 .8 Optical Characteristics . 31 3.2 Free Troposphere . 35 3.2.1 Vertical Aerosol Distribution . 35 3.2.2 Continental
9、 and Maritime Background . 37 3.2.3 Desert Dust Streams . 42 42 3.2.4 Combustion Products . 3.2.5 Arctic Haze 42 3.2.6 Volcanic Contamination, StratosphericTropospheric Exchange . 42 3.3 Stratosphere and Mesosphere . . .43 3.3.1 Introduction . 43 3.3.2 Intervolcanic Background . . .44 3.3.3 Volcanic
10、 . 52 3.3.4 Polar Stratospheric Clouds 56 3.3.5 Mesospheric Clouds . 58 3.3.6 HSST . .59 60 Annex A: The Altitude-Size Distribution . References . 61 List of Figures. . iv . . 111 AIAA G-065-1999 List of Figures Figure 1 . Figure 2 . Figure 3 . Figure 4 . Figure 5 . Figure 6 . Figure 7 . Figure 8 .
11、Figure 9 . Figure 1 O . Figure 11 . Figure 12 . Figure 13 . Figure 14 . Figure 15 . Figure 16 . Figure 17 . Figure 18(a) . Figure 18(b) . Figure 19 . Figure 20 . Figure 21 . Figure 22 . Figure 23(a) . Figure 23(b) . Figure 24 . Figure 25 . Figure 26 . Figure 27 . Figure 28 . Page Characteristics of
12、the atmospheric aerosols as a function of altitude . 5 Normalized frequency plots of the number. surface. and volume distributions as a function of particle size for the grand average 1969 Pasadena smog aerosol 8 Atmospheric aerosol surface area distribution showing the principal modes. the main sou
13、rce of mass in each mode. and the principal removal mechanisms 9 Mass concentration of mineral aerosols (in pg m-) for April at the 1 O00 hPa pressure level . 12 Aerosol modification and removal processes . 13 Aerosol residence time of individual particles as a function of particle size and altitude
14、 in the atmosphere . 13 Scattering by a single particle at p . 16 Mie scattering diagram 17 Dependence of the efficiency factor Q on the size parameter . 17 Scattering by an element dV of the aerosol medium of total volume V . 18 Transmission law for an aerosol medium of length L . 19 Schematic show
15、ing the various geographical and altitude regions used in defining aerosol models . 23 Model number size distributions of selected atmospheric aerosols according to Table 1 O . 25 Model dry salt aerosol distributions (shown as area) developed from the combination of OPC and Woodcock size distributio
16、ns . 26 Equilibrium aerosol diameters as a function of relative humidity for various aerosol com posit ions 28 Variation of (a) desert aerosol particle number density and (b) surface area with wind velocity . 29 The differential spectra of the areas of continental aerosol particles 29 Size distribut
17、ions of various kinds of particles collected following the Kuwait oil fires . 31 Size distributions of aerosol samples collected at various distances from the fire but at similar altitudes . 31 Relationship between black carbon concentrations and distance from China shore . 32 Radiatively equivalent
18、 aerosol optical thickness (EAOT x 1000) over the oceans derived from NOAA AVHRR satellites for the four seasons 33 Seasonal variation of regional optical depth 34 Mean values and variabilities of the extinction and absorption coefficients of dry atmospheric particles at different air masses . 35 Al
19、titude distributions of particle mass concentration . 36 Altitude distribution of aerosol number concentration . 36 Vertical distribution of dust concentration for the four different size classes (averaged over all longitudes) in units of microgram dust per kilogram air 38 Long-term average bimodal
20、log normal tropospheric aerosol particle size distributions at Laramie for two altitude intervals during summer (left) and winter (right) 39 Elemental composition of aerosols over the Pacific Basin as a function of altitude . 41 Seasonal variations in zonally averaged background aerosol characterist
21、ics at an altitude of 7.5 km 41 Log-normal cubic spline model size distribution for two extreme conditions at the peak of the stratospheric aerosol layer 44 iv AIAA G-065-1999 List of Figures (continued) Figure 29. Figure 30. Figure 31. Figure 32. Figure 33. Figure 34. Figure 35. Figure 36. Figure 3
22、7(a). Figure 37(b). Figure 38(a). Figure 38(b). Page Global-averaged, annual mean profiles of 1 .O-micrometer aerosol extinction from the 1979 and 1989 reference models . . 45 Time-latitude section of stratospheric aerosol optical depth at 1 pm, blending SAGE I and II and SAM II data 48 Aerosol surf
23、ace area density in square microns per cubic centimeter 48 Background mass mixing ratio as a function of altitude 49 Aerosol surface area density as a function of time and latitude 50 Estimated stratospheric aerosol optical depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24、. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 Time series from SAM II of weekly averaged values of aerosol optical depth at high latitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 Time series of one degree zonally averaged optical thickness departures starting at the time just after the Mt. Pinatubo eruption 56 Seasonal variation in the averaged frequency of occurrence of Arctic PSC sight
26、ings by SAM II for the period 1978-89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 Seasonal variation in the averaged frequency of occurrence of Antarctic PSC sightings by SAM II for the
27、period 1978-89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 Histogram showing the distribution with longitude of Arctic PSC sightings by SAM II for the period 1978-89 . . 58 Histogram sho
28、wing the distribution with longitude of Antarctic PSC sightings by SAM II for the period 1978-89 . . 58 V AIAA G-065-1999 List of Tables Table 1 . Table 2 . Table 3 . Table 4 . Table 5 . Table 6 . Table 7 . Table 8 . Table 9(a) . Table 9(b) . Table 10 . Table 11 . Table 12 . Table 13 . Table 14 . Ta
29、ble 15 . Table 16 . Table 17 . Table 18 . Table 19 . Table 20 . Table 21 (a) . Table 21 (b) . Table 22 . Table 23 . Table 24 . Page Commonly Used Techniques for Measuring Aerosol Characteristics . 2 Important General References on Aerosol Models and Characteristics 3 Source Strength of Atmospheric A
30、erosol Particles in Tg/yr for Radii Smaller than 1 O0 pm 4 Commonly Used Size Distribution Functions . 7 Aerosol Types 10 Aerosol Components and Contribution to Aerosol Types . 11 Aerosol Equivalent Volume Radius at Different Relative Humidities . 15 Complex Refractive Index (m, + imJ of Various Aer
31、osol Components and Water 20 Mohs Scale-of-Hardness for Minerals 22 Mohs Hardness Values for Some Other Minerals . 22 Parameters for Models of Aerosol Size Distributions Described by the Sum of Three Log Normal Functions . 24 Log Normal Parameters for Sea Salt Aerosol Number Size Distributions (dN/d
32、logD) 27 ind Speed Dependence of the Desert Aerosol Size Distribution Parameters 28 Parameters of Vertical Aerosol Profiles . 36 Vertical Distribution of Atmospheric Aerosol in 3 or 4 Layers . 37 Tropospheric Aerosol Mean Seasonal Size Distribution and Mass 40 Free Tropospheric Size Distribution Par
33、ameter for the Pacific Basin . 40 Annually Smoothed Mass Loading 42 Tropospheric Volcanic Data Intercomparisons 42 Characteristics of Stratospheric Aerosols 43 Parameters for Size Distribution 45 Coefficients of the Polynomial Derived from SAGE I 1 . O-Micrometer Aerosol Extinction (March 1979 to Fe
34、bruary 1980) . 46 Coefficients of the Polynomial Derived from SAGE II 1 . O-Micrometer Aerosol Extinction (March 1989 to February 1990) (Concluded) . 46 Decadal Mean Values of Aerosol Extinction at 1 pm, in Units of 1 0.4km., Given Every 1 O“ From 80“s to 80“N and Every 2 km from 8 km (or the Tropop
35、ause) to 34 km Altitude . 47 Estimated Annual Stratospheric Aerosol Optical Depths (Multiplied by 1000) at h = 0.55 pm 53 Estimate of Aerosol Mass Loading in the Stratosphere 55 vi AIAA G-065-1999 Foreword This Guide to Global Aerosol Models has been sponsored by the American Institute of Aeronautic
36、s and Astronautics (AIAA) as part of its Standards Program. The purpose of this Guide is to provide, in convenient form, a set of reference global aerosol models (GAM) for use by the aerospace community. Information is provided on aerosol physical and chemical characteristics, size distribution, phy
37、sical state, and mass concentration, as well as on their basic optical properties. The scope of the effort is confined to aerosols commonly found in the atmosphere, particularly those arising from natural causes; somewhat less emphasis is placed on aerosols produced by human development and industry
38、. The aim has been to provide a general survey of aerosol types and characteristics, rather than detailed physical and chemical properties. Derived quantities, such as atmospheric radiative characteristics, have similarly been omitted. The information provided in the form of tables and graphs is tak
39、en from published sources. No attempt has been made to create new data or new models. In this effort, assistance was sought from a worldwide community of aerosol scientists. A draft outline of the guide was prepared and distributed to over 40 atmospheric aerosol scientists around the world. The foll
40、owing individuals, who responded by sending and/or suggesting relevant literature, tables, and models, comprise the AIAA Global Aerosol Model Working Group. They are A. Deepak, Chairman (Science and Technology Corporation, USA) A. D. Clarke (University of Hawaii, USA); D. A. Gillette (National Ocean
41、ic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), USA); G. Hnel (Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universitt, Germany); P. V. Hobbs (University of Washington, USA); R. Jaenicke (Johannes Gutenberg-Universitt, Germany); J. Lenoble (Universit des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, France); G. S. Kent (Science and Techn
42、ology Corporation, USA) F. Parungo (Science and Technology Corporation, USA); J. Podzimek (University of Missouri-Rolla, USA); E. P. Shettle (Naval Research Laboratory, USA); K. S. Shifrin (Oregon State University-Corvallie, USA); L. L. Stowe (NOAA, USA). Their assistance in this effort is gratefull
43、y acknowledged. To facilitate convenient access to aerosol characteristics and models, this guide is structured so that the early sections provide general information on aerosol properties and classification, as well as on the nomenclature used to describe them. The latter sections contain more deta
44、iled models and data relating to aerosol normally occurring in specific atmospheric regions and environments. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the assistance of STC staff, especially M. D. (Sue) Crotts, Linda Schofield, and Hope Tarr, in the preparation of the camera-ready copy of this guide. It is h
45、oped this volume will be a valuable contribution to the international standards on global aerosol models for the aerospace community, and will act as a useful reference point for future updates. The AIAA Standards Procedures provide that all approved Standards, Recommended Practices, and Guides are
46、advisory only. Their use by anyone engaged in industry or trade is entirely voluntary. There is no agreement to adhere to any AIAA standards publication and no commitment to conform to or be guided by any standards report. In formulating, revising, and approving standards publications, the Committee
47、s on Standards will not consider patents which may apply to the subject matter. Prospective users of the publications are responsible for protecting themselves against liability for infringement of patents or copyrights, or both. The AIAA Atmospheric ” those which are produced in the laboratory or f
48、ield space by man-made chemical, thermal, or mechanical means are called “artificial aerosols.” In this work, the term atmospheric aerosols will cover aerosols derived from both natural and anthropogenic sources, the latter being those generated as by-products of human activity, such as burning of f
49、ossil fuels and are often referred to as “anthropogenic aerosols.” Atmospheric aerosols may be formed as the result of wind action at the earths surface (land or ocean) or formed in situ by condensation from the gaseous phase. Gaseous precursors may, in turn, be formed by the action of sunlight and chemical action on other naturally or anthropogenically-produced gases. Aerosols are subject to changes in size and composition by processes of condensation, evaporation, and coagulation. Water soluble aerosols may also change size in response to changes in atmospheric hum
