1、1642-1651-Englands Puritan Revolution and Civil Wars 1648-Peace of Westphalia ends Thirty Years War 1648-King Charles I of England is publicly beheaded in London -Outbreak of the Fronde (revolt of the nobility) in France 1649 1651Thomas Hobbes publishes Leviathan, “the first general theory of politi
2、cs in the English language” (E & E 356) 1660-English monarchy is restored 1661-Louis XIV begins his personal rule at age 14 1663-Eight proprietors are granted Carolina in the New World by Charles II 1670-Secret treaty between Charles II and Louis XIV (Treaty of Dover) 1673-Englands Test Act excludes
3、 Roman Catholics from holding office 1682-Louis XIV moves government and court to Versailles 1688-Englands Glorious Revolution Birth of Constitutional Monarchy 1689-90John Locke publishes The Two Treatises of Government 1689-Englands Bill of Rights 1707-Union between Scotland and England under the n
4、ame of “Great Britain“,Hobbes & Locke,Rousseau,1723-Louis XV attains majority 1750Jean Jacques Rousseaus essay A Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences is awarded by the Academy of Dijon 1751-72Publication of The Enciclopdie in France (edited by Diderot, with contributions by dAlemb
5、ert, Holbach, Helvetius, Turgot, Haller, Morellet, Quesney, Voltaire, and Montesquieu) 1752-September 14, Great Britain adopts the Gregorian calendar 1755Rousseaus Discourse on the Origin of Inequality. Rousseau also publishes his Discourse on Political Economy in Diderots Enciclopdie 1756-1763- Sev
6、en Years War 1762Rousseau publishes The Social Contract 1777-American Revolution 1778-Alliance between United States and France 1783-Peace of Versailles between France, England, Spain, and United States 1787-Signing of the Constitution of the United States 1789-Outbreak of hostilities in France with
7、 the fall of the Bastille July 14 - Abolition of French feudal system, Declaration of Rights of Man, nationalization of church property begins 1792-French Revolutionary Wars begin - 1792-French royal family imprisoned 1793-Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette executed 1793-Robespierre joins Committee on P
8、ublic Safety - Roman Catholic faith banned in France 1793-First Coalition against France of Britain, Austria, Prussia, Holland, Spain 1794-U.S. navy established 1795-France makes peace with Prussia, Tuscany, Spain 1795-White Terror and bread riots in Paris 1795-Napolean assumes commander-in-chief 17
9、99-Second coalition against France as Austria declares war - French Directory overthrown, Bonaparte coup detat and made First Consul,Reactionary Conservative Moderate (Center) Reformist Revolutionary,Classical political categorization (RF):,RightSocial OrderLeft,The Enlightenment (18th century),Natu
10、ral Sciences: discover of LAWS that regulate the physical world. The Philosophes aspired to discover the LAWS that regulate human beings and society.,18th century: Faith in Reason and Science,Development of a critique of Absolutism and the power of the Church in behalf of human freedom. Commitment t
11、o Social and Political Reform. Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Smith, Condorcet, Kant.,Enlightenment = Promethean Dream,Epistemes Truth is understood as.,AntiquityRenaissance & the EnlightenmentModernity (onwards),Revealed Discovered (in Nature)Constructed,Rousseau: The Social Contract,Radic
12、al Democratic Contractualism, or Precursor of Totalitarianism?,Jean-Jacques Rousseau,1712-1778 Born in Geneva, rebelled against the Calvinist atmosphere and left the city in 1728. Travels (Italy), Mme. de Warens. 1742, Paris. 1745, Meets Therese Levasseur.,Main Works,1750: Discourse on the Arts and
13、the Sciences (1st prize Academy of Dijon). 1755: Discourse on inequality Discourse on Political Economy 1762: On the Social Contract.Emile,Work lost (destroyed),Political Institutions,Rousseaus ideas influenced the 1789 Revolution.,On the Social Contract,“I want to inquire whether there can be some
14、legitimate and sure rule of administration in the civil order, taking men as they are and laws as they might be.” (17),“Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.”,“The social order is a sacred right which serves as a foundation for all other rights”,The Social Order.,Does not have its origin
15、s in nature, but in a convention.,The First Societies (II),Family: children remain bound to their father only so long as they need him. Equality and independence. Political societies Family (pleasure of commanding) (love),“Every man born in slavery is born for slavery; nothing is more certain.”,Beca
16、use. “In their chains slaves lose everything, even the desire to escape.” (19) “If there are slaves by nature, it is because there have been slaves against nature.” (19),The Right of the Strongest (III),“The strongest is never strong enough to be master all the time, unless he transforms force into
17、right and obedience into duty.” “Force is a physical power; I fail to see what morality can result from its effects.” Arendt,“For what kind of right is it that perishes when the force on which it is based ceases?”,“Obey the powers that be.” ( Saint Paul). “If that means giving in to force, the prece
18、pt is sound, but superfluous.”,“All power comes from God.”,“.but so does every disease. Does this mean that calling in a physician is prohibited?”,Conclusion:,“one is obliged to obey only legitimate powers.”,On Slavery (IV),Conventions are the source of authority among men.Problems: is a contract of
19、 slavery conceivable?,According to .,Grotius: an individual can alienate his liberty and turn himself into a slave. A people can also do this Also Hobbes.,Contract of Slavery,I give up my freedom in order to survive. The same does a multitude.The despot assures his subjects civil tranquility (= Hobb
20、es),Rousseau.,“A tranquil life is also had in dungeons; is that enough to make them desirable?”“To say that a man gives himself gratuiously is to say something absurd and inconceivable. Such an act is illegitimate and null.”,“Renouncing ones liberty is renouncing ones dignity as a man, the rights of
21、 humanity and even its duties. There is no possible compensation for anyone who renounces everything. Such a renounciation is incompatible with the nature of man.”,War as source of slavery,The victor who has the right to kill the vanquished- pardons his life if he agrees to become his slave. HEGELS
22、MASTER/SLAVE DIALECTICS.,But.,There is no right to kill the enemy derived from war. Men are not naturally enemies ( Hobbes). It is the relationship between things and not that between men that brings about war.,Fights, duels, encounters. (individuals),.do not make a state. “War is not therefore a re
23、lationship between one man and another, but a relationship between one state and another.” Only States are enemies. And States may be killed without any single individual be killed.,Rousseau claims his principles are based on Reason.,Therefore.,“Neither a person enslaved during wartime nor a conquer
24、ed people bears any obligation whatever toward its master, except to obey him for as long as it is forced to do so.”,Slavery and Right are contradictory terms.,The Social Compact (V),Men cannot engender new forces.Thus, they have to unite the forces they have in a single major force.,The Social Cont
25、ract creates.,A form of association that “defends and protects with all common forces the person and goods of each associate, and by means of which each one, while uniting with all, nevertheless obeys only himself and remains as free as before.”,The Clauses.,Are UNIVERSAL.Main clause: “the total ali
26、enation of each associate, together with all of his rights, to the entire community.”,Each person.,“gives himself whole and entire.” (so) nobody wants to make the condition burdensome. . Actually, each person gives herself to no one.,“Each of us places his person and all his power in common under th
27、e supreme direction of the general will; and as one we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.”,Contract. Twofold commitment,Individuals commit themselves.As members of the sovereign to private individuals; As a member of the state toward the sovereign.,This act of association gener
28、ates “a moral and collective body composed of as many members as there are voices in the assembly, which receives from this same act its unity, its common self, its life and its will.”,“This public person, formed thus by union of all the others formerly took the name city, and at present takes the n
29、ame republic or body politic, which is called state by its members when it is passive, sovereign when it is active, power when compared to others like itself.,The associates “collectivelly take the name people; individually they are called citizens, insofar as participants in the sovereign authority
30、, and subjects, insofar as they are subjected to the laws of the state.”,The sovereign cannot derogate the original act of its institution, that is. It cannot annihilate itself.,Emergence of.,A MORAL AND COLLECTIVE BODY (is “body” here a metaphor?) with a. General Will,No Guarantees.,“the Sovereign,
31、 being formed wholly of the individuals who compose it, neither has nor can have any interest contrary to theirs; and consequently the sovereign power need give no guarantee to its subjects, because it is impossible for the body to wish to hurt its members.”,The General Will,Individuals may have a p
32、rivate will different from the General Will.In case of conflict (implicit rule) “whoever refuses to obey the general will will be forced to do so by the entire body.” That is, “he will be forced to be free.”,The General Will.,Emerges from Deliberations.General Will The Will of All (Common (PrivateIn
33、terest) Interests),The passage from nature to civil society.,Changes a stupid and unimaginative animal into an intelligent being and a man Master of himself.Develops feelings of Justice, Moral Liberty, and the experience of Reason in individuals.Changes possesion into property.,“Instead of destroyin
34、g natural equality, the fundamental compact substitutes, for such physical inequality as nature may have set up between men, an equality that is moral and legitimate. so that. Men become every one equal by convention and legal right.”,Equality,Sovereignty is Inalienable,“Sovereignty, being nothing l
35、ess than the exercise of the general will, can never be alienated, and . The Sovereign, who is no less than a collective being, cannot be represented except by himself: the power indeed may be transmitted, but not the will.”,No Representation. Foundation for DIRECT democracy.,Government,“What then i
36、s government? An intermediary body set up between the subjects and the Sovereign, to secure their mutual correspondence, charged with the execution of the laws and the maintenance of liberty, both civil and political. The members of this body are called magistrates or kings, that is to say governors
37、, and the whole body bears the name prince.”,Sovereignty is Indivisible,Sovereignty is Absolute,State = Body “As nature gives each man absolute power over all his members, the social compact gives the body politic absolute power over all its members also, and it is this power which, under the direct
38、ion of the general will, bears, as I have said, the name of Sovereignty.”,The Right of Life and Death,The social contract seeks the preservation of the life of the Whole, so. We must be ready to give up our own life for its sake.,The Right of Life and Death,“the citizen is no longer the judge of the
39、 dangers to which the law desires him to expose himself; and when the prince says to him: It is expedient for the State that you should die, he ought to die, because it is only on that condition that he has been living in security up to the present, and because his life is. now a gift made conditionally by the State.” (Ex: Socrates),
