1、Impacting Rapid Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) CommercializationOther SAE books of interest: Wireless Charging Technology and The Future of Electric Transportation By: In-Soo Suh (Product Code: R-444) Advanced Hybrid Powertrains for Commercial Vehicles By: Haoran Hu, Simon Basely, and Ru
2、dolf M. Smaling (Product Code: R-396) Electric and Hybrid-Electric Vehicles - Fuel Cell Hybrid EVs By: Ronald K. Jurgen (Product Code: PT-143/5) Chevrolet Volt-Development Story of the Pioneering Electrified Vehicle By: Lindsay Brooke (Product Code: PT-149) For more information or to order a book, c
3、ontact: SAE INTERNATIONAL 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096 Phone: +1.877.606.7323 (U.S. and Canada only) Or +1.724.776.4970 (outside U.S. and Canada) Fax: +1.724.776.0790 Email: CustomerServicesae.org Website: books.sae.orgImpacting Rapid Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) Commerc
4、ialization System Cost Reduction and Subcomponent Performance Enhancement David L. Wood, III, PhD. Warrendale, Pennsylvania USA Copyright 2016 SAE International eISBN: 978-0-7680-8300-2 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA E-mail: CustomerServicesae.org Phone: +1 877.606.7323 (inside
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7、ber: TU-001 http:/ /dx.doi.org/10.427/TU-001 Information contained in this work has been obtained by SAE International from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither SAE International nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein and neither SAE I
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9、sional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. ISBN-Print: 978-0-7680-8256-2 ISBN-PDF: 978-0-7680-8300-2 ISBN-epub: 978-0-7680-8302-6 ISBN-prc: 978-0-7680-8301-9 To purchase bulk quantities, please contact: SAE Customer Service E-mail:
10、 CustomerServicesae.org Phone: +1 877.606.7323 (inside USA and Canada)+1 724.776.4970 (outside USA) Fax: +1 724.776.0790 Visit the SAE International Bookstore at books.sae.orgv Contents Preface xi Introduction: Impacting Rapid Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) Commercialization xiii Chapter
11、 1: Disruption as a Strategy: Technology Leadership Brief.1 Drivers of Change . 1 Obstacles . 1 Disruptive Effects of an Automaker Forcing Infrastructure 2 Results . 3 Summary and Conclusions 4 References 5 Acknowledgments . 5 Chapter 2: Retail Infrastructure Costs Comparison for Hydrogen and Electr
12、icity for Light-Duty Vehicles. 7 Methods 9 Number of Hydrogen Stations by Size . 11 Number of EVSE Stations by Type 11 Hydrogen Station Costs . 13 EVSE Station Costs . 14 Results 15 Total Capital Costs per City and Capital Costs per Mile Traveled 15 Total Fuel Costs per Vehicle Mile . 19 Discussion:
13、 Variability of Results . 20 Conclusion 24 Acknowledgments 24 References . 24 Appendix 26 EVSE Station Cost 26 A1 Cost Estimates for Level 1 Residential EVSE 26 A2 Cost Estimates for Level 2 Residential EVSE 28 A3 Cost Estimates for Level 2 Commercial . 30 A4 Cost Estimates for DC Fast Charge (DCFC)
14、 . 32vi Contents Chapter 3: Nanometers Layered Conductive Carbon Coating on 316L Stainless Steel as Bipolar Plates for More Economical Automotive PEMFC .35 Experimental . 36 Results and Discussion 38 Surface Morphology and Phase Structure 38 AFM and ICR Properties 42 Summary and Conclusions . 44 Ref
15、erences . 45 Acknowledgments 47 Chapter 4: Chemical Hydrides for Hydrogen Storage in Fuel Cell Applications 49 Chemical Hydride Materials . 51 Modeling Solid AB Reactor Systems . 52 Solid ABFlow Through Reactor (Auger) Design 53 Solid ABFixed Bed Reactor 56 Modeling Fluid AB Reactor Systems . 58 Slu
16、rry Reactor . 58 Solvated AB Reactor 59 Summary and Conclusions . 62 References . 62 Acknowledgments 64 Chapter 5: Hydrogen Sensors for Automotive Fuel Cell Applications.65 Automotive Hydrogen Technology and Hydrogen Sensor Safety 66 Hydrogen Sensors in the Vehicle 67 Measuring HydrogenAutomotive Se
17、nsor Specification 68 Typical Environmental Load . 69 Operating Principle for Hydrogen Detection . 70 Typical Challenges in the Measuring Device 71 Change of the Thermal Budget Over TimePositive/ Negative Drift 72 Delamination of Sensor Chip Surface Coating 74 Embrittlement of Surface Coating 76 Kir
18、kendall-Effect at the Bond Pads . 77 Present and Future Hydrogen Sensor Development . 79 Summary and Conclusions . 79 References . 80 Acknowledgments 81vii Contents Chapter 6: Development of a Vehicle-Level Simulation Model for Evaluating the Trade-off between Various Advanced On-board Hydrogen Stor
19、age Technologies for Fuel Cell Vehicles83 Vehicle Model: HSSIM . 84 Fuel Cell Model 88 Model Framework 89 Model Application 91 Conclusions 96 References . 97 Acknowledgments 98 Chapter 7: Air Supply System for Automotive Fuel Cell Application 99 Fuel Cell System . 100 Air Supply System for Fuel Cell
20、 . 104 Previous Generation Air Supply System 105 Current Generation Air Supply System 107 Future Generation Air Supply System 110 Comparison of the Three Generations of Air Supply Systems . 113 Summary and Conclusions 114 References 115 Acknowledgments . 115 Chapter 8: Hybrid Electric System for a H
21、ydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle and Its Energy Management. 117 Description of the Vehicle . 118 Dimensioning of the Powertrain . 119 Dimensioning of the Sources 120 Fuel Cell and Battery Models 121 Fuel Cell . 121 Battery . 122 Energy Management . 123 Global Optimization . 124 Global Optimization Results
22、126 Local Optimization 128 Local Optimization Results . 130 Conclusion . 132 References 132viii Contents Chapter 9: Control System for Sensing the Differential Pressure between Air and Hydrogen in a Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEFC).135 System Configuration 9-2 136 Cathode 137 Anode 137 Modeling
23、of Air Supply System 138 Modeling of Air Supply System 9-2, 9-3, 9-4 138 Flow Characteristics around Orifice 9-4 . 139 Linearization of Mass Flow Rate around Orifice 9-4 140 Pressure Dynamics 9-4 . 140 Derivation of Linear Model of Air Supply System 9-2, 9-3 . 140 Design of Continuous Sliding Mode C
24、ontrol System 9-2, 9-3 143 Preparation for Configuring Hydrogen/Air Pressure Control System 9-2 . 144 Transfer Function from Reference Value to Plant Output in a 2 DOF Control System Using a Minimal Order Observer . 144 Application to a Sliding Mode Servo Control System with a Minimal Order Observer
25、. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145 Configuration of Differential Pressure Control System 146 The Case of Increasing Pressure 9-2 147 The Case of Air Pressure Displays Higher Response under a Condition of Decreasing Pressure 9-2 . 148 The Case of Hydrogen Pressure Displays
26、 Higher Response under a Condition of Decreasing Pressure 9-2 149 Configuration of the System for Controlling the Hydrogen-Air Pressure Difference within a Specified Range 149 Experimental and Simulation Results . 150 Conclusion . 150 References 150 Chapter 10: Multi-Objective Optimization of Fuel C
27、ell Hybrid Vehicle Powertrain DesignCost and Energy.153 Methodology 154 Case Study . 155 PHEV and HEV Single-Objective Optimization . 159 PHEV and HEV Multi-Objective Optimization 161ix Contents Results and Discussion . 164 HEV-FC 164 PHEV-FC 167 Summary and Conclusions 172 References 172 Acknowledg
28、ments . 174 Appendix . 175 About the Editor177xi Preface Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) powered by proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and fueled by hydrogen offer the promise of zero emissions with excellent driving range of 300400 miles and fast refueling times of less than five minu
29、testwo major advantages over battery electric vehicles (BEVs). However, to achieve widespread and rapid commercialization, FCEVs face some remaining major challenges: 1. Cost of 80-kW PEMFC stacks must still be reduced by 1.52 to $15/kW eat high volume (reducing electrode Pt content, ionomer membran
30、e cost, bipolar plate assembly cost, etc.) and by a factor of over 10 at low volume (i.e., less than 1000 stacks). 2. Stack gravimetric power density must still be increased by 3040% to 2 kW / kg. 3. Stack durability must be approximately doubled to 50005500 operating hours. 4. Onboard hydrogen stor
31、age volumetric energy density must be significantly increased to 2.3 kWh/L (i.e., more than 2 greater than that achieved by 700 bar compressed gas storage). 5. Lower cost and reliable balance-of-plant (BOP) components such as cathode air handlers, radiators, nozzles, etc. must be developed. 6. Metho
32、ds of producing renewable hydrogen (or hydrogen with low greenhouse gas impact), such as renewable electrolysis, steam reforming of natural gas, or photoelectrochemical generation, that meets the ultimate cost targets of $24 per gallon of gasoline equivalent (gge), are needed. 7. Lower cost and reli
33、able hydrogen infrastructure fueling components (hoses, compressors, sensors, etc.) manufactured in the United States are required. 8. Construction of networked, low-cost hydrogen fueling stations across the nation, in other states than California, is necessary. This book addresses many of these cha
34、llenges, especially from an FCEV system and subsystem cost and performance perspective. David L. Wood, III Oak Ridge National Laboratoryxiii Introduction Impacting Rapid Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) Commercialization System Cost Reduction and Subcomponent Performance Enhancement Altern
35、ative propulsion technologies are becoming increasingly important with stricter regulations for vehicle efficiency and emission regulations, as well as concerns over the sustainability of crude oil supplies. These alternative technologies include hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid elect
36、ric vehicles (PHEVs), and pure battery electric vehicles (BEVs). HEVs use two or more sources of power, which typically consist of a fuel converter such as an internal combustion engine (ICE) or a fuel cell, with a battery, for propulsion. The PHEV combines HEV with a BEV configuration, enabling the
37、 use of battery energy only for pure electric locomotion, and use of the fuel converter to obtain higher power or extend the vehicle range. As a source of power, the fuel cell converts the chemical energy from a fuel such as hydrogen to electricity through a chemical reaction of positively charged h
38、ydrogen ions with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. The fuel cell requires a continuous source of fuel and oxygen or air to sustain the chemical reaction. The fuel cell is a critical component of alternative propulsion systems, and as such has many aspects to consider in its design. In this book Th
39、e chapters in this book are based on papers covering various qualities of fuel cells. They address topics including barriers to the market introduction of alternative vehicles and ways to address these challenges, retail infrastructure cost comparison of hydrogen and electricity, a conductive carbon
40、 coating on 316L stainless steel for bipolar plates for the polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), chemical hydrides for hydrogen storage, hydrogen sensors, a simulation model for comparing on-board hydrogen storage technologies, an air supply system, a hybrid electric system for a hydrogen
41、 fuel cell vehicle and its energy management, a control system for sensing differential pressure between air and hydrogen in a polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC), and optimization of a fuel cell hybrid vehicle powertrain design.xiv IntroductionImpacting Rapid Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (F
42、CEV) Commercialization In Chapter 1, a Lexus Div., Toyota Motor Sales USA researcher addresses “Disruption as a Strategy: Technology Leadership Brief.” Various barriers to the market introduction of non-gasoline vehicles, which are external to the automaker, exist. These barriers include the develop
43、ment of new fuel or energy distribution systems, various connector types, and unpredictable or inconvenient refueling choices. The ecosystem that is external to the automaker is often referred to as “infrastructure.” Intervention by automakers in infrastructure decisions are at least disruptive and
44、at worst unhelpful. However, successful development and construction of pools of vehicles powered by non-liquid fuels can demonstrate market appeal and stimulate development of necessary supporting infrastructure. What were seen as barriers can turn into strategic opportunities for the enterprise th
45、at finds effective solutions and successfully implements them first. This paper discusses the fact that moving beyond internal testing of non- petroleum-fueled vehicles to broader projects and real-world demonstrations can not only build buyer confidence but may also spur the development of long- te
46、rm energy policies and infrastructure projects that can help to resolve the whole product issues. This may be necessary for any automaker to succeed with car buyers. It also addresses the benefits of collaboration with key external organizations, which accelerates the development of necessary suppor
47、t systems and new business models for retail sales and service, fueling, communications, and other infrastructure for hydrogen-powered vehicles. In Chapter 2, a researcher with the National Renewable Energy Laboratory presents “Retail Infrastructure Costs Comparison for Hydrogen and Electricity for
48、Light-Duty Vehicles.” Both hydrogen and plug-in electric vehicles offer significant social and environmental benefits to enhance energy security and reduce criteria and greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector. However, the rollout of electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) and hydro
49、gen retail stations (HRS) requires substantial investments with high risks due to many uncertainties. This paper compares retail infrastructure costs on a common basiscost per mile, assuming fueling service to 10% of all light-duty vehicles in a typical 1.5 million person city in 2025. The analysis considers three HRS sizes, four distinct types of EVSE, and two distinct EVSE scenarios. Total fuel costs per mile for battery electric vehicle (BEV), plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV), and hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) are examined
