1、Automotive Engineering FundamentalsOther SAE titles of interest: Automotive Technology, Third Edition By M.J. Nunney (Order No. R-242) Bosch Automotive Handbook (Order No. BOSCH5) The Future of the Automotive Industry: Challenges and Concepts for the 21st Century Edited by Ralf Landmann, Heiko Wolte
2、rs, Wolfgang Bernhart, and Holger Karsten (Order No. R-291) The Motor Vehicle, 13th Edition By T.K. Garrett (Order No. R-298) For more information or to order a book, contact SAE at 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001; phone (724) 776-4970; fax (724) 776-0790; e-mail CustomerServicesae
3、.org; website http:/store.sae.org.Automotive Engineering Fundamentals Richard Stone and Jeffrey K. BallAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or ot
4、her- wise, without the prior written permission of SAE. For permission and licensing requests, contact: SAE Permissions 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA E-mail: permissionssae.org Tel: 724-772-4028 Fax: 724-772-4891 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Stone, Richar
5、d. Automotive engineering fundamentals / Richard Stone and Jeffrey K. Ball, p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7680-0987-1 1. Automobilesp=m-Design and construction. I. Ball, Jeffrey K. II. Title. TL240.S853 2004 629.23p=m-dc22 2004041782 SAE 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrenda
6、le, PA 15096-0001 USA E-mail: CustomerServicesae.org Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada) 724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-1615 Copyright s=c 2004 Richard Stone and Jeffrey K. Ball ISBN 0-7680-0987-1 SAE Order No. R-199 Printed in the United States ofAmerica.Table of Contents Preface. xi
7、ii Acknowledgments. xv Chapter 1p=m-Introduction andOverview.1 1.1 Beginnings. 1 1.2 Growth andRefinement. 6 1.3 Modern Development. 9 1.4 Overview.16 Chapter 2 p=m-Thermodynamics of PrimeMovers.17 2.1 Introduction.17 2.2 Two- and Four-Stroke Engines. 17 2.3 Indicator Diagrams and Internal Combustio
8、n Engine PerformanceParameters. 20 2.4 Otto and Diesel CycleAnalyses. 23 2.4.1 The Ideal Air Standard Otto Cycle. 24 2.4.2 The Ideal Air Standard Diesel Cycle. 25 2.4.3 Efficiencies of Real Engines. 30 2.5 Ignition and Combustion in Spark Ignition and Diesel Engines.32 2.6 Sources ofEmissions. 37 2.
9、6.1 Simple Combustion Equilibrium. 37 2.6.2 Unburned Hydrocarbons (HC) and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) in Spark IgnitionEngines. 41 2.6.3 Unbumed Hydrocarbons (HC), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), and Particulates in Compression Ignition Engines. 45 2.7 Fuel and Additive Requirements. 45 2.7.1 Abnormal Combustion
10、in Spark Ignition Engines. 48 2.7.2 Gasoline and DieselAdditives. 48 2.8 Gas Exchange Processes. 50 2.8.1 Valve Flow and Volumetric Efficiency. 50 2.8.2 Valve Timing. 55 2.8.3 Valve OperatingSystems. 58 2.8.4 Dynamic Behavior of ValveGear. 60 2.9 EngineConfiguration. 64 2.9.1 Choosing the Number of
11、Cylinders. 64 2.9.2 Balancing of the Primary and Secondary Forces andMoments. 68 2.10 FuelCells. 79 2.10.1 Solid Polymer Fuel Cells (SPFC). 79 2.10.2 Solid Polymer Fuel Cell (SPFC)Efficiency. 81 2.10.2.1 ActivationLosses. 832.10.2.2 Fuel Crossover and Internal Currents. 85 2.10.2.3 OhmicLosses. 87 2
12、.10.2.4 Mass Transfer Losses. 87 2.10.2.5 Overall Response. 88 2.10.3 Sources of Hydrogen for Solid Polymer Fuel Cells (SPFC). 88 2.10.3.1 Steam Reforming(SR). 89 2.10.3.2 Partial Oxidation (POX)Reforming. 90 2.10.3.3 Autothermal Reforming(AR). 90 2.10.3.4 Carbon Monoxide Clean-Up and Solid Polymer
13、Fuel Cell (SPFC) Operation on Reformed Fuel. 91 2.10.3.5 HydrogenStorage. 92 2.10.4 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Systems. 93 2.11 Concluding Remarks. 97 2.12Problems. 97 Chapter 3p=m-Spark IgnitionEngines. 101 3.1 Introduction.101 3.2 Spark Ignition and IgnitionTiming. 101 3.2.1 Ignition System Overview.101 3
14、.2.2 The Ignition Process.105 3.2.3 Ignition Timing Selection andControl.107 3.3 Mixture Preparation. 109 3.4 Combustion SystemDesign. 113 3.4.1 Port Injection Combustion Systems. 113 3.4.2 Direct Injection Spark Ignition (DISI) Combustion Systems. 116 3.5 EmissionsControl. 120 3.5.1 Development of
15、the Three-WayCatalyst. 121 3.5.2 Durability. 124 3.5.3 CatalystLight-Off. 125 3.5.4 Lean-Bum NOx-Reducing Catalysts, “DENOx“. 126 3.6 Power Boosting. 127 3.6.1 Variable Valve Timing and Induction Tuning. 127 3.6.2 Supercharging. 128 3.7 Engine ManagementSystems. 132 3.7.1 Introduction. 132 3.7.2 Sen
16、sor Types. 134 3.7.2.1 Crankshaft Speed/Position and Camshaft Position.134 3.7.2.2 ThrottlePosition.136 3.7.2.3 Air FlowRate.136 3.7.2.4 Inlet Manifold Absolute Pressure.137 3.7.2.5 Air Temperature and Coolant Temperature. 137 3.7.2.6 Air-FuelRatio.137 3.7.2.7 Knock Detector.1403.8 Engine Management
17、 System Functions.142 3.8.1 IgnitionTiming. 142 3.8.2 Air-Fuel RatioControl.143 3.8.3 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Control.144 3.8.4 AdditionalFunctions.144 3.8.5 Concluding Remarks on Engine Management Systems. 146 3.9 Conclusions.147 3.10 Questions. 147 Chapter 4p=m-Diesel Engines. 149 4.1 Intr
18、oduction.149 4.2 Direct and Indirect Injection CombustionChambers.150 4.3 Fuel InjectionEquipment. 152 4.3.1 Pump-Line-Injector (PLI)Systems. 153 4.3.2 Electronic Unit Injectors(EUI). 155 4.3.3 Common Rail (CR) Fuel InjectionSystems. 156 4.4 Diesel Engine Emissions and TheirControl.157 4.4.1 Diesel
19、Engine Emissions.157 4.4.2 Diesel Engine EmissionsControl.158 4.4.2.1 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR). 158 4.4.2.2 Paniculate Traps. 159 4.5 Turbocharging. 161 4.5.1 Introduction.161 4.5.2 Turbocharger Performance.164 4.5.3 Turbocharged Engine Performance.169 4.6 Diesel Engine ManagementSystems. 172
20、 4.7 Concluding Remarks. 175 4.8 Examples. 177 4.9 Problems.185 Chapter 5p=m-Ancillaries.189 5.1 Introduction.189 5.2 Lubrication System. 189 5.2.1 Bearings. 189 5.2.1.1 Anti-Friction Bearings. 190 5.2.1.2 Guide Bearings. 190 5.2.1.3 Thrust Bearings. 191 5.2.1.4 Journal Bearings. 192 5.2.2 Engine Lu
21、bricants. 195 5.2.3 Lubrication of Journal Bearings. 197 5.3 Vehicle CoolingSystems. 202 5.3.1 Coolant. 206 5.4 DriveBelts. 208 5.4.1 Flat BeltDrives. 208 5.4.2 V-Belts. 2125.5 Air ConditioningSystems. 213 5.5.1 Overview. 213 5.5.2 Thermodynamic Performance and Operation. 215 5.5.3 Coefficient of Pe
22、rformance (CoP):. 216 5.5.4 Air Conditioning System Performance. 222 5.6 Generators, Motors, andAlternators. 223 5.6.1 Fundamentals. 223 5.6.2 PracticalAlternators. 227 5.6.3 Practical StarterMotors. 231 5.7 Conclusions. 233 Chapter 6p=m-Transmissions andDriveline. 235 6.1 Introduction. 235 6.2 Fric
23、tionClutches. 236 6.2.1 Torque Capability of an AxialClutch. 239 6.2.1.1 Uniform Pressure: p = pa. 240 6.2.1.2 UniformWear. 242 6.3 Gear Theory. 243 6.3.1 Straight-Tooth Spur Gears. 244 6.3.2 Helical Spur Gears. 244 6.3.3 Straight-Tooth BevelGears. 245 6.3.4 Spiral BevelGears. 246 6.3.5 Hypoid Gears
24、. 246 6.4 ManualTransmissions. 249 6.4.1 Transmission PowerFlows. 251 6.4.1.1 FirstGear. 251 6.4.1.2 SecondGear. 251 6.4.1.3 Third Gear. 252 6.4.1.4 FourthGear. 252 6.4.1.5 Reverse. 253 6.4.2 SynchronizerOperation. 254 6.5 AutomaticTransmissions. 255 6.5.1 Fluid Couplings and Torque Converters. 256
25、6.5.2 Planetary Gears 261 6.5.3 Planetary Gear-Set Torque Converter. 265 6.5.4 Simpson Drive. 267 6.5.4.1 Power Flow in First Gear. 268 6.5.4.2 Power Flow in SecondGear. 270 6.5.4.3 Power Flow in ThirdGear. 270 6.5.4.4 Power Flow inReverse. 271 6.5.5 Hydraulic Control System. 272 6.6 Continuously Va
26、riable Transmissions (CVT). 275 6.6.1 Introduction. 275 6.6.2 Van Doome Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT). 275 6.6.3 Torotrak Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT). 2776.7 Driveshafts. 281 6.7.1 HookesJoints. 281 6.7.2 ShaftWhirl. 286 6.8 Differentials. 290 6.9 Four-Wheel Drive (FWD) and A
27、ll-Wheel Drive (AWD).293 6.9.1 Part-Time Four-Wheel Drive (4WD).294 6.9.2 On-Demand Four-Wheel Drive (4WD). 295 6.9.3 Full-Time Four-Wheel Drive (4WD). 295 6.9.4 All-Wheel Drive (AWD). 295 6.10 Case Study: The Chrysler 42LE Automatic Transaxle. 296 6.10.1 Configuration. 296 6.10.2 Planetary GearSet.
28、 296 6.10.3 Chain TransferDrive. 299 6.10.4 Control System. 299 6.11 Problems. 299 Chapter 7p=m-Steering Systems and SteeringDynamics. 303 7.1 Introduction. 303 7.2 Steering Mechanisms. 303 7.2.1 Worm Systems. 305 7.2.2 Worm andSector. 305 7.2.3 Worm andRoller. 305 7.2.4 Recirculating Ball. 307 7.2.
29、5 Rack and Pinion Steering. 308 7.2.6 Power Steering. 308 7.3 SteeringDynamics. 311 7.3.1 Low-SpeedTurning. 311 7.3.2 High-SpeedTurning. 312 7.3.3 Effects of TractiveForces. 318 7.4 Wheel Alignment. 320 7.4.1 Camber. 320 7.4.2 Steering Axis Inclination (SAI). 320 7.4.3 Toe. 321 7.4.4 Caster. 323 7.4
30、.5 Wheel Alignment. 324 7.5 Steering Geometry Errors. 324 7.6 Front-Wheel-DriveInfluences. 327 7.6.1 Driveline Torque. 327 7.6.2 Loss of Cornering Stiffness Due to Tractive Forces. 329 7.6.3 Increase in Aligning Torque Due to Tractive Forces. 329 7.7 Four-Wheel Steering. 330 7.7.1 Low-Speed Turns. 3
31、31 7.7.2 High-Speed Turns. 332 7.7.3 Implementation of Four-Wheel Steering. 3337.8 VehicleRollover. 337 7.8.1 Quasi-Static Model. 337 7.8.2 Quasi-Static Rollover with Suspension. 337 7.8.3 Roll Model. 339 7.9 Problems. 343 Chapter8p=m-Suspensions. 345 8.1 Introduction. 345 8.2 Perception ofRide. 345
32、 8.3 Basic Vibrational Analysis. 347 8.3.1 Single-Degree-of-Freedom Model (Quarter Car Model). 347 8.3.2 Two-Degrees-of-Freedom Model (Quarter Car Model). 351 8.3.3 Two-Degrees-of-Freedom Model (Half Car Model). 354 8.4 Suspension SystemComponents. 363 8.4.1 Springs. 363 8.4.1.1 Leaf Springs. 363 8.
33、4.1.2 TorsionBars. 364 8.4.1.3 Coil Springs. 365 8.4.1.4 Pneumatic (Air)Springs. 368 8.4.2 Dampers (ShockAbsorbers). 371 8.5 SuspensionTypes. 372 8.5.1 SolidAxle Suspensions. 373 8.5.1.1 Hotchkiss Suspensions. 373 8.5.1.2 Four-Link Suspensions. 374 8.5.1.3 de Dion Suspensions. 374 8.5.2 IndependentS
34、uspensions. 375 8.5.2.1 Short-Long Arm Suspensions(SLA). 375 8.5.2.2 MacPhersonStruts. 375 8.5.2.3 Trailing Arm Suspensions. 376 8.5.2.4 Multi-Link Suspensions. 378 8.5.2.5 Swing Arm Suspensions. 379 8.6 Roll Center Analysis. 379 8.6.1 Wishbone Suspension Roll Center Calculation. 381 8.6.2 MacPherso
35、n Strut Suspension Roll Center Calculation. 382 8.6.3 Hotchkiss Suspension Roll Center Calculation. 382 8.6.4 Vehicle Motion About the RollAxis. 382 8.7 Active Suspensions. 391 8.8 Conclusions. 396 Chapter 9p=m-Brakes andTires. 397 9.1 Introduction. 397 9.2 BrakingDynamics. 399 9.3 HydraulicPrincipl
36、es. 402 9.4 Brake SystemComponents. 403 9.4.1 Master Cylinder. 403 9.4.2 PowerAssistance. 4049.4.3 CombinationValve. 405 9.4.3.1 Proportioning Valve. 406 9.4.3.2 Pressure DifferentialSwitch. 406 9.4.3.3 Metering Valve. 406 9.5 DrumBrakes. 406 9.5.1 Analysis of DrumBrakes. 409 9.5.2 Example. 412 9.6
37、DiscBrakes. 414 9.6.1 Disc Brake Components. 414 9.6.1.1 BrakeDisc. 414 9.6.1.2 BrakePads. 416 9.6.1.3 Caliper. 416 9.6.2 Disc Brake Analysis. 417 9.6.3 Heat Dissipation from DiscBrakes. 419 9.7 Antilock Brake Systems(ABS). 421 9.8 Tires. 424 9.8.1 TireConstruction. 425 9.8.2 Tire Designations. 426
38、9.8.3 Tire ForceGeneration. 429 9.9 Summary. 433 9.10Problems. 433 Chapter 10p=m-Vehicle Aerodynamics. 435 10.1 Introduction. 435 10.2 Essential Aerodynamics. 436 10.2.1 Introduction, Definitions, and Sources of Drag. 436 10.2.2 ExperimentalTechniques. 445 10.3 Automobile Aerodynamics. 450 10.3.1 Th
39、e Significance of AerodynamicDrag. 450 10.3.2 Factors Influencing AerodynamicDrag. 452 10.4 Truck and Bus Aerodynamics. 456 10.4.1 The Significance of AerodynamicDrag. 456 10.4.2 Factors Influencing AerodynamicDrag. 456 10.5 Aerodynamics of Open Vehicles. 461 10.6 Numerical Prediction of Aerodynamic
40、 Performance. 463 10.7 Conclusions. 464 10.8 Examples. 465 10.9 DiscussionPoints. 469 Chapter 11p=m-Transmission Matching and Vehicle Performance. 473 11.1 Introduction. 473 11.2 Transmission Matching. 473 11.2.1 Selecting the Engine Size and Final Drive Ratio for Maximum Speed. 474 11.2.2 Use of Ov
41、erdrive Ratios to Improve Fuel Economy. 47711.2.3 Use of Continuously Variable Transmissions (CVT) to Improve Performance. 479 11.2.4 Gearbox Span. 482 11.3 ComputerModeling. 486 11.3.1 Introduction. 486 11.3.2 ADVISOR (ADvanced Vehicle SimulatOR). 488 11.4 Conclusions. 491 Chapter 12p=m-Alternative
42、 Vehicles and CaseStudies. 495 12.1 ElectricVehicles. 495 12.1.1 Introduction. 495 12.1.2 BatteryTypes. 496 12.1.2.1 Lead-AcidBatteries. 498 12.1.2.2 Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Batteries. 498 12.1.2.3 Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Batteries. 499 12.1.2.4 Lithium Ion (Li-Ion)/Lithium Polymer Batteries. 499
43、12.1.3 Types of ElectricVehicles. 500 12.1.4 Conclusions About ElectricVehicles. 502 12.2 Hybrid ElectricVehicles. 502 12.2.1 Introduction. 502 12.2.2 Dual HybridSystems. 505 12.3 CaseStudies. 507 12.3.1 Introduction. 507 12.3.2 The Vauxhall14-40. 507 12.3.2.1 Introduction. 507 12.3.2.2 Specificatio
44、ns. 508 12.3.2.3 Engine Design and Performance. 508 12.3.2.4 Engine Performance. 513 12.3.2.5 Vehicle Design and Performance. 517 12.3.2.6 Conclusions. 521 12.3.3 The Toyota Prius. 521 12.3.4 Modeling the Dual Cconfiguration. 522 12.4 Conclusions. 524 Chapter 13p=m-References. 525 Index. 541 About t
45、heAuthors. 595Preface This book arose from a need for an automotive engineering textbook that included analysis, as well as descriptions of the hardware. Specifically, several courses in systems engineering use the automobile as a basis. Additionally, many universities are now involved in collegiate
46、 design competitions such as the SAE Mini Baja and Formula SAE competitions. This book should be helpful to such teams as an introductory text and as a source for further references. Given the broad scope of this topic, not every aspect of automotive engineering could be covered while keeping the te
47、xt to a reasonable and affordable size. The book is aimed at third- to fourth-year engineering students and presupposes a certain level of engineering background. However, the courses for which this book was written are composed of engineering students from varied backgrounds to include mechanical,
48、aeronau- tical, electrical, and astronautical engineering. Thus, certain topics that would be a review for mechanical engineering students may be an introduction to electrical engineers, and vice versa. Furthermore, because the book is aimed at students, it sometimes has been necessary to give only
49、outline or simplified explanations. In such cases, numerous references have been made to sources of other information. Practicing engineers also should find this book useful when they need an overview of the subject, or when they are working on particular aspects of automotive engineering that are new to them. Automotive engineering draws on almost all areas of engineering: thermodynamics and com- bustion, fluid mechanics and heat transfer, mechanics, stress analysis, materials science, elec- tronics and controls, dynamics, vibrations, machine design, link
