1、_ 6$(7HFKQLFDO6WDQGDUGV%RDUG5XOHVSURYLGHWKDW7KLVUHSRUWLVSXEOLVKH GE6$(WRDGYDQFHWKHVWDWHRIWHFKQLFDODQGHQJL neering sciences. The use of this report is entirely voluntary, and its applicability and suitability for any particular use, including any patent infringement arising therefrom, is the sole res
2、ponsiELOLWRIWKHXVHU SAE reviews each technical report at least every five years at which time it may be revised, reaffirmed, stabilized, or cancelled. SAE invites your written comments and suggestions. Copyright 2016 SAE International All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduce
3、d, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE. TO PLACE A DOCUMENT ORDER: Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada) Tel: +1 724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-77
4、6-0790 Email: CustomerServicesae.org SAE WEB ADDRESS: http:/www.sae.org SAE values your input. To provide feedback on this Technical Report, please visit http:/standards.sae.org/AIR6212 AEROSPACE INFORMATION REPORT AIR6212 Issued 2016-12 Use of Health Monitoring Systems to Detect Aircraft Exposure t
5、o Volcanic Events RATIONALE The constituents, concentration, and size of volcanic ash particles are highly variable. Volcanic ash can also damage or degrade aircraft sub-systems. In the past 30 years, more than 90 jet-powered commercial airplanes have encountered clouds of volcanic ash and suffered
6、damage as a result. The increased availability of satellites and the technology to transform satellite data into useful information for operators have reduced the number of volcanic ash encounters, but the damage that these encounters can inflict on aircraft sub-systems is also highly variable and h
7、as the potential to be catastrophic. Understanding how sensors on an airborne platform could help determine that an aircraft is in a volcanic ash environment or has recently flown through volcanic ash is thus of considerable value. SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR6212 Page 2 of 33 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. SCOPE 3
8、1.1 Purpose . 3 2. REFERENCES 3 2.1 Applicable Documents 3 2.1.1 SAE Publications . 3 2.1.2 Other Documents 3 2.2 Terminology and Definitions 4 3. INTRODUCTION . 7 3.1 Volcanoes Across the World, Monitoring of, and Effects on Aircraft 7 3.2 Efforts to Categorize Effects of Volcanic Ash 9 3.3 Estimat
9、ing the Amount of Volcanic Ash Ingested by Aircraft Engines 11 3.4 Effects of Ash Concentration and Exposure Durations on Gas Turbine Engines . 12 4. ASSESSMENT OF INHERENT AIRBORNE SENSORS BY AIRCRAFT SUB-SYSTEM . 13 4.1 Exterior Surfaces Including, and Especially, Transparencies . 14 4.2 Engine Ga
10、s Path Components 16 4.2.1 Engine Gas Path Sensors . 17 4.3 Engine Lubrication System 22 4.4 Actuators and Hydraulic System . 22 4.5 Environmental Control System (ECS) . 22 4.6 Heat Exchangers . 23 4.7 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) 23 4.8 Communications and Guidance, Navigation and Control (GNC) Sub-Sy
11、stems . 23 4.8.1 High Frequency (HF) (3 to 30 MHz) 23 4.8.2 Very High Frequency (VHF) and Ultra High Frequency (UHF) . 24 4.8.3 Speech Communications 25 4.8.4 Satellite Communications (SATCOM) . 25 4.8.5 Flight Environment Data (FED) . 26 4.8.6 Weather Radar 27 4.9 Pilots and Crewmember Detection 27
12、 5. ON-GOING RESEARCH/TEST PROGRAMS 29 5.1 Vehicle Integrated Propulsion Research (VIPR) Testing 29 5.2 Integrated Vehicle Health Assurance System (IVHAS) for Structural Damage Detection 30 6. EMERGENT TECHNOLOGIES 30 6.1 Airborne Volcanic Object Imaging Detector (AVOID) 30 6.2 Aircraft Aerosol and
13、Particle Sensor, Cambridge Enterprise Limited . 31 6.3 ZEUS Ash Detection Device . 32 6.4 Advanced Analytics for Discovery of Precursors to Safety Incidents 32 7. CONCLUSION 33 8. NOTES 33 8.1 Revision Indicator 33 TABLE 1 CATEGORIZATION OF EFFECTS BASED ON SEVERITY OF ENCOUNTER 10 TABLE 2 CALCULATO
14、R FOR THE MASS OF VOLCANIC ASH INGESTED BY AN ENGINE 12 TABLE 3 AIRCRAFT ENGINE GAS PATH SYSTEM SENSORS 17 TABLE 4 BEHAVIORS OF COMMUNICATIONS AND GUIDANCE, NAVIGATION AND CONTROL SUB-SYSTEMS IN VOLCANIC ASH 24 TABLE 5 POSSIBLE COMMUNICATION VULNERABILITIES ARISING FROM VOLCANIC ASH. 27 SAE INTERNAT
15、IONAL AIR6212 Page 3 of 33 1. SCOPE 7KLVGRFXPHQWFROODWHVWKHZDVDQGPHDQVWKDWHLVWLQJVHQVRUVFDQLGHQWLIWKH SODWIRUPVHSRVXUHWRYROFDQLFDVKThe capabilities include real-time detection and estimation, and post flight determinations of exposure and intensity. The document includes results of initiatives with
16、the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), Transport Canada, various research organizations, Industry and other subject matter experts. The document illustrates the ways that an aircraft can use existin
17、g sensors to act as health monitoring tools so as to assess the operational and maintenance effects related to volcanic ash incidents and possibly help determine what remedial action to take after encountering a volcanic ash (VA) event. Finally, the document provides insight into emerging technologi
18、es and capabilities that have been specifically pursued to detect volcanic ash encounters but are QRWHWDSDUWRIDQDLUSODQHVVWDQGDUGILW 1.1 Purpose The purpose of this document is to help the civil and military aviation community understand how the existing capabilities on an airplane could be used to
19、help mitigate the adverse effects of volcanic ash on an individual air vehicle and possibly fleets of air vehicles. 2. REFERENCES 2.1 Applicable Documents The following publications form a part of this document to the extent specified herein. The latest issue of SAE publications shall apply. The app
20、licable issue of other publications shall be the issue in effect on the date of the purchase order. In the event of conflict between the text of this document and references cited herein, the text of this document takes precedence. Nothing in this document, however, supersedes applicable laws and re
21、gulations unless a specific exemption has been obtained. 2.1.1 SAE Publications Available from SAE International, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001, Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada) or +1 724-776-4970 (outside USA), www.sae.org. AIR4175A A Guide to the Development of a Groun
22、d Station for Engine Condition Monitoring 2.1.2 Other Documents Reference 1 IVATF Final report: Available at http:/www.icao.int/safety/meteorology/ivatf/Documents/IVATF.Summary.of.Accomplishments.pdf Reference 2 ICAO report, April 12, Flight Safety and Volcanic Ash (DOC 9974), available at http:/www
23、.icao.int/safety/Documents/ICAO_2013-Safety-Report_FINAL.pdf Reference 3 Guffanti, Marianne, Casadevall, T.J., and Budding, Karin, 2010, Encounters of aircraft with volcanic ash clouds; A compilation of known incidents, 1953 2009: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 545, ver. 1.0, 12 p., plus 4 appen
24、dixes including the compilation database, available only at http:/pubs.usgs.gov/ds/545 Reference 4 Schumann, U., Weinzierl, B., Reitebuch, O., Schlager, H., Minikin, A., Forster, C., Baumann, R., Sailer, T., Graf, K., Mannstein, H., Voigt, C., Rahm, S., Simmet, R., Scheibe, M., Lichtenstern, M., Sto
25、ck, P., Rba, H., Schuble, D., Tafferner, A., Rautenhaus, M., Gerz, T., Ziereis, H., Krautstrunk, M., Mallaun, C., Gayet, J.-F., Lieke, K., Kandler, K., Ebert, M., Weinbruch, S., Stohl, A., Gasteiger, J., Gro, S., Freudenthaler, V., Wiegner, M., Ansmann, A., Tesche, M., Olafsson, H., and Sturm, K.: A
26、irborne observations of the Eyjafjallajkull volcano ash cloud over Europe during air space closure in April and May 2010, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 2245-2279, doi:10.5194/acp-11-2245-2011, 2011 Reference 5 Operation of Gas Turbine Engines in an Environment Contaminated with Volcanic Ash; Journal of Tu
27、rbomachinery September 2012, published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR6212 Page 4 of 33 Reference 6 Airborne Volcanic Ash, A Global Threat to Aviation, a USGS Fact Sheet available from http:/pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3116/fs2010-3116.pdf Reference 7 Przedpels
28、ki, Z.J., and Casadevall, T.J., 1994, Impact of volcanic ash from 15 December 1989 Redoubt Volcano eruption on GE CF6 80C2 turbofan engines, in Casadevall, T.J., ed., Volcanic ash and aviation safety; Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Volcanic Ash and Aviation Safety held in Seattl
29、e, Washington, in July 1991: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2047, p. 129 135 Reference 8 DYLVRQ Bangalore, India; January 2012 http:/ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20120002753.pdf Reference 17 Reference 18 http:/ x The eruption dynamics, magma fragmentation efficiency, eruption dura
30、tion, plume height and mass eruption rate; x The environmental conditions at the eruption site (e.g., interactions with external water, atmospheric humidity, meteorological conditions, etc.). In general, for a given eruption, the particle sizes will reduce with distance from the volcano as the large
31、r and denser particles fall out first: a large proportion do so within the first few hours. The size and concentration of particles at the encounter point will therefore be heavily influenced by the magnitude of the eruption, distance from the volcanic vent, time elapsed since onset of eruption, as
32、well as meteorological conditions such as wind speed. (Larger particles for example can be transported further than might otherwise be expected if high wind speeds are present; e.g., jet streams.) As a result the size distribution of volcanic particles that an aero engine may encounter will vary gre
33、atly. SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR6212 Page 10 of 33 Volcanologists estimate the grain-size distribution at particular locations from an eruption by analyzing the resulting deposits on the ground. These will give an upper estimate of the size distribution of the particles that would have been present in th
34、e atmosphere above that location because the sample will be biased towards the larger particles that fall out while the finer particles can be transported further. In-situ measurements of cloud particle sizes are rare and may be limited to the smaller grain sizes due to detection limits in the senso
35、rs or collectors used. During the Eyjafjallajkull eruption of 2010 Schumann et al. (Reference 4) took a series of measurements of the days-old distal ash clouds. They found that the particles in their collectors had diameters of up to 20 microns. Some 16 years before the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallaj
36、kull, the USGS developed an Ash Encounter Severity Index (in conjunction with engine and airframe manufactures and the Air Line Pilots Association). The index was subsequently endorsed by the ICAO. Table 1 shows the ascending order of effects on the air vehicle as a whole. The USGS Report (Reference
37、 3) is an extensive compilation of reported incidents of aircraft exposed to VA from 1953 through 2009 and the impact on the aircraft. Appendix 4 of the study is a tabulation which correlates these events with effects noted and assigns a degree of severity to each incident wherever possible. The imp
38、rovements discussed in the document include ground-based and airborne sampling of ash clouds to provide data on how ash concentrations in the atmosphere vary in space and time, and placing sensors on board aircraft to provide a tactical means to avoid ash-contaminated airspace. It is from this latte
39、r suggestion that SAE was motivated to examine how aircraft sub-systems, in their current configurations, could provide data that would not only protect the individual aircraft in real-time, but also others which might be entering the airspace in the near future. 7KHPDMRULWRIWKHUHFRUGHGHYHQWVVKRZQRW
40、LILFDWLRQRIHLWKHUPLQRURUQRQHIRUGDPDJHWRWKHDL rframe. Table 1 - Categorization of effects based on severity of encounter Ash Encounter Severity Matrix Class Criteria 0 Acrid odor (e.g., sulfur gas) noted in cabin (OHFWURVWDWLFGLVFKDUJH 6W(OPRVILUH RQZLQGVFUHHQQRVHDQGHQJLQHFRZOV No notable damage to e
41、xterior or interior 1 Light dust in cabin, no oxygen used Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) fluctuations with return to normal values 2 +HDYFDELQGXVWGDUNDVQLJKWLQFDELQ Contamination of air handling and air conditioning systems requiring use of oxygen Minor abrasion damage to exterior surfaces, engine in
42、let and compressor fan blades Deposition of ash in engine 3 Vibration of engines owing to mismatch; surging Frosting or breaking of windows because of impact of ash Minor plugging of pitot-static system; insufficient to affect instrument readings Plugging of pitot-static system to give erroneous ins
43、trument readings Contamination of engine oil and hydraulic system fluids Damage to electrical system Engine damage 4 Temporary engine failure requiring in-flight restart 5 Engine failure or other engine with significant potential of flight safety incident Many of the noted effects were visual and, w
44、hile they may be somewhat subjective in terms of degree, they are nonetheless valuable from a health monitoring perspective. Moreover, it is probably more cost-effective to gather information in this manner than by using special or additional sensor systems. This report explores how the platform can
45、 make use of its current sensors, and/or noted changes in the behavior of sub-systems and their performance to augment the historical approach of Table 1. SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR6212 Page 11 of 33 An encounter with a heavy ash cloud, capable of causing immediate adverse effects to engine operation, is
46、 clearly evident to the flight crew by direct sensory perception (visible wall of dense particles, distinct cloud, St. (OPRVILUH 6HFWLRQ smell). The use of sensors at this point may add little benefit. Operation in much lower ash concentrations, not clearly apparent to the eye, can lead to long term deterioration of engine performance. Engines are routinely monitored and parameters trended as part of airline operations; normal health monitoring is completely capable of mitigating c
